Banteng

The banteng (Bos javanicus; ), also known as the tembadau, is a species of wild bovine found in Southeast Asia, with domestic-wild hybrids present in parts of Northern Australia. The head-and-body length is between 1.9 and 3.68 m (6.2 and 12.1 ft). Wild banteng are typically larger and heavier than their domesticated counterparts, but are otherwise similar in appearance. The banteng shows extensive sexual dimorphism; adult bulls are generally dark brown to black, larger and more sturdily built than adult cows, which are thinner and usually pale brown or chestnut red. There is a big white patch on the rump. Horns are present on both sexes, and are typically 60 to 95 cm (24 to 37 in) long. ...

Banteng are active during the day as well as at night, though activity at night is more in areas frequented by humans. They typically form herds of two to forty individuals consisting of a single bull, cows and young. Older males form groups of two or three. Banteng are timid and reclusive, and tend to be highly alert, making approach difficult. Domestic individuals get stressed easily, and need to be handled with care. They rest and seek shelter for safety in dense forests. Banteng, particularly cows and calves, walk fast and manoeuvre easily through dense cover. Predators of adult banteng include the local populations of tigers and dholes (Asian wild dogs). Banteng use their strong sense of smell to detect predators and as a means of communication within a herd. Their hearing is also highly developed. Vocalisations such as roars and bellows might be common during the breeding season; calves within seven months may produce soft eng sounds. High-pitched cries are used to raise alarm.

Indonesia

Herbivores, banteng feed on vegetation such as grasses, sedges, shoots, leaves, flowers and fruits. They forage at night in open areas, taking breaks of two to three hours in between to ruminate and rest. They may move to forests at higher altitudes to forage during the rainy season. A study in Deramakot Forest Reserve (Sabah) showed the presence of several herbal seeds (such as Mimosa pudica and Paspalum conjugatum), bamboo (probably Dinochloa species) and tree bark in faecal samples. A study in West Java showed that banteng grazed mostly on the grasses Axonopus compressus, Cynodon dactylon, Ischaemum muticum and P. conjugatum, and the woody shrub Psychotria malayana. Banteng can survive without water for several days during droughts, but drink regularly if possible, especially from standing water. They frequent salt licks to satisfy their salt requirements; in the absence of licks they drink sea water instead. Banteng can drink highly saline water, and have been observed feeding on seaweed in northern Australia.

Banteng are active during the day as well as at night, though activity at night is more in areas frequented by humans. They typically form herds of two to forty individuals consisting of a single bull, cows and young. Older males form groups of two or three. Banteng are timid and reclusive, and tend to be highly alert, making approach difficult. Domestic individuals get stressed easily, and need to be handled with care. They rest and seek shelter for safety in dense forests. Banteng, particularly cows and calves, walk fast and manoeuvre easily through dense cover. Predators of adult banteng include the local populations of tigers and dholes (Asian wild dogs). Banteng use their strong sense of smell to detect predators and as a means of communication within a herd. Their hearing is also highly developed. Vocalisations such as roars and bellows might be common during the breeding season; calves within seven months may produce soft eng sounds. High-pitched cries are used to raise alarm.

longest observed 27.1 years.

Not much is known about the reproductive physiology of banteng, but it might be similar to that observed in taurine cattle. Domestic banteng can become sexually mature at as early as 13 months of age, and breed after another three months. They conceive easily, with a conception rate of 80–90% recorded in northern Australia. Breeding has been observed throughout the year in captivity and in wild banteng in Myanmar, though wild individuals on Cobourg Peninsula mate mainly in October and November, and in Thailand mating peaks in May and June. After a gestation of nearly 285 days (nine to ten months), a week longer than that typically observed in taurine cattle, a single calf is born. Males weigh 16–17 kg (35–37 lb) at birth, while females weigh 14–15 kg (31–33 lb). Young are suckled for as long as 16 months, though some cows may continue nursing till the birth of their next calf. A study of wild banteng on Cobourg Peninsula showed that males become sexually mature at three to four years and females at two to four years; males attain their full-grown size five to six years, while females grow completely by three to four years. Calf mortality is high in the first six months of life, and declines quickly thereafter with increasing body size. Banteng live for as long as 26 years.

The banteng is similar to taurine cattle, with head-and-body length between 1.9 and 2.25 m (6.2 and 7.4 ft). Wild banteng are typically larger and heavier than their domesticated counterparts, but are otherwise similar in appearance. The mean shoulder height of wild Javan and Indochinese banteng is 1.4 m (4.6 ft) for cows and 1.6 m (5.2 ft) for bulls; Bornean banteng, the smallest subspecies, are shorter. Domesticated banteng cows reach 1.2 m (3.9 ft) at the shoulder, while the bulls are 1.3–1.5 m (4.3–4.9 ft) tall. In the wild cows weigh around 590–670 kg (1,300–1,480 lb), while bulls weigh around 600–800 kg (1,300–1,800 lb). Weights of domesticated individuals range from 211 to 242 kg (465 to 534 lb) for females and from 335 to 363 kg (739 to 800 lb) for males. The largest bulls attain 3.3 and 3.7 m (11 and 12 ft) between pegs (nose to rump) with 0.9 and 0.95 m (3.0 and 3.1 ft) long tail, 1.76 and 1.91 m (5.8 and 6.3 ft) at the withers, and weigh 900 kg (2,000 lb) or more. The banteng shows extensive sexual dimorphism; adult bulls are generally dark brown to black, larger and more sturdily built than adult cows, that are thinner and usually pale brown or chestnut red. Females and juveniles additionally have a dark line running along their back. Some bulls may retain their brown colour, sometimes with white spots similar to those seen in deer. The coat of young bulls is reddish brown, and progressively attains the adult colouration starting from the front to the rear parts. Aged bulls may turn grey. The underparts are white to light brown. The face is lighter relative to the rest of the body, whitish or tawny grey at the forehead and around the eyes but darker near the black snout. There is a big white patch on the rump, poorly developed in the Indochinese banteng; the patch may serve as a guide for herds to stay together in the dark. The legs are white below the knees. The back is particularly elevated in bulls due to the unusual lengths of the thoracic vertebrae, giving the impression of a hump. Horns are typically 60 to 75 cm (24 to 30 in) long, and separated by thick skin at the base. Bulls have long, slender horns with sharp tips and a circular cross-section, and are smooth except for the wrinkled base. The horns of cows are short and tightly curved, pointing inward at the tips, while those of bulls arc upwards and slightly forward. The tail, measuring 65 to 70 cm (26 to 28 in), ends in a black tuft.

The wild banteng is classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and populations have decreased by more than 50% in the past few decades. In 2008, the IUCN estimated the global banteng population at 5,000–8,000 individuals. Rampant poaching (for food, game, traditional medicine and horns), habitat loss and fragmentation and susceptibility to disease are major threats throughout the range. Most populations throughout the range are small and isolated. Banteng are legally protected in all countries in their range, and are largely restricted to protected areas. Most other populations are small and fragmented, and many are on the decline. Surveys in eastern Cambodia between 2009 and 2011 estimated the total population in Sre Pok Wildlife Sanctuary and Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary at 1,980–5,170 individuals. Surveys in the following years (up to 2016) in these sanctuaries and adjacent areas (such as the Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary) gave an approximate total of 4,600 individuals. Recent updates to these surveys suggest widespread collapse of these populations. The Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary population is estimated in have decline rapididly from 382 in 2010, with too few recorded in 2020 to produce a population estimate. Populations in Sre Pok Wildlife Sanctuary and Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary have declined from around 1000 in each site in 2010 to only 370 and 485 respectively in 2020. The only populations of more than 50 individuals in Thailand occur in the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and possibly in the Kaeng Krachan National Park. A survey between 2000 and 2003 in Java identified four to five significant populations, with the highest numbers in the Ujung Kulon National Park (300–800 individuals), the Baluran National Park (206 individuals) and the Meru Betiri National Park (200 individuals). In East Java, a survey between 2011 and 2013 recorded rapid decline in populations in the Baluran National Park, though the numbers appeared to be stable in the Meru Betiri National Park; the researchers identified poaching, habitat disturbance, competition with other species, changes in vegetation cover and habitat loss as major threats. In Borneo numbers have fallen in areas like Kalimantan and Sabah, mainly due to poaching and human disturbance. The steepest decline (by more than 50%) took place between 1970 and 2000 due to deforestation and conversion of forests into plantations. Minor populations have been reported from areas such as Kulamba Wildlife Reserve, Deramakot Forest Reserve and Sipitang Forest Reserve during 2009–2015; individuals might still occur in the Belantikan Hulu region (Central Kalimantan), Kayan Mentarang National Park (North Kalimantan) and Kutai National Park (East Kalimantan). Areas suitable for the conservation of banteng have been identified in Cambodia and Thailand. However, the areas identified thus far are small and fragmented, and more than half of them are outside of protected areas. Though unprotected, these areas could still be very useful as wildlife corridors for connecting otherwise fragmented populations of banteng. These corridors would serve to mitigate some of the harmful impacts of habitat fragmentation, such as the diminished biodiversity, inbreeding, and decreased genetic diversity that often occur in isolated populations. Monitoring and maintenance of habitat quality, law enforcement, and management of human–wildlife conflicts are needed in these areas to ensure the long-term survival of this species. ==== Threats to domesticated banteng ==== Since a small founder event occurred in Australia with the introduction of only 20 previously domesticated banteng, a genetic bottleneck has inevitably occurred, causing all banteng presently in Australia to lack genetic diversity as a result of inbreeding. Genetic invariability can lead to inbreeding depression, resulting in harmful mutations and reduced immunity to diseases. This was proven by an analysis of 12 microsatellites,…

The wild banteng is classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and populations have decreased by more than 50% in the past few decades. In 2008, the IUCN estimated the global banteng population at 5,000–8,000 individuals. Rampant poaching (for food, game, traditional medicine and horns), habitat loss and fragmentation and susceptibility to disease are major threats throughout the range. Most populations throughout the range are small and isolated. Banteng are legally protected in all countries in their range, and are largely restricted to protected areas. Most other populations are small and fragmented, and many are on the decline. Surveys in eastern Cambodia between 2009 and 2011 estimated the total population in Sre Pok Wildlife Sanctuary and Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary at 1,980–5,170 individuals. Surveys in the following years (up to 2016) in these sanctuaries and adjacent areas (such as the Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary) gave an approximate total of 4,600 individuals. Recent updates to these surveys suggest widespread collapse of these populations. The Keo Seima Wildlife Sanctuary population is estimated in have decline rapididly from 382 in 2010, with too few recorded in 2020 to produce a population estimate. Populations in Sre Pok Wildlife Sanctuary and Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary have declined from around 1000 in each site in 2010 to only 370 and 485 respectively in 2020. The only populations of more than 50 individuals in Thailand occur in the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and possibly in the Kaeng Krachan National Park. A survey between 2000 and 2003 in Java identified four to five significant populations, with the highest numbers in the Ujung Kulon National Park (300–800 individuals), the Baluran National Park (206 individuals) and the Meru Betiri National Park (200 individuals). In East Java, a survey between 2011 and 2013 recorded rapid decline in populations in the Baluran National Park, though the numbers appeared to be stable in the Meru Betiri National Park; the researchers identified poaching, habitat disturbance, competition with other species, changes in vegetation cover and habitat loss as major threats. In Borneo numbers have fallen in areas like Kalimantan and Sabah, mainly due to poaching and human disturbance. The steepest decline (by more than 50%) took place between 1970 and 2000 due to deforestation and conversion of forests into plantations. Minor populations have been reported from areas such as Kulamba Wildlife Reserve, Deramakot Forest Reserve and Sipitang Forest Reserve during 2009–2015; individuals might still occur in the Belantikan Hulu region (Central Kalimantan), Kayan Mentarang National Park (North Kalimantan) and Kutai National Park (East Kalimantan). Areas suitable for the conservation of banteng have been identified in Cambodia and Thailand. However, the areas identified thus far are small and fragmented, and more than half of them are outside of protected areas. Though unprotected, these areas could still be very useful as wildlife corridors for connecting otherwise fragmented populations of banteng. These corridors would serve to mitigate some of the harmful impacts of habitat fragmentation, such as the diminished biodiversity, inbreeding, and decreased genetic diversity that often occur in isolated populations. Monitoring and maintenance of habitat quality, law enforcement, and management of human–wildlife conflicts are needed in these areas to ensure the long-term survival of this species. ==== Threats to domesticated banteng ==== Since a small founder event occurred in Australia with the introduction of only 20 previously domesticated banteng, a genetic bottleneck has inevitably occurred, causing all banteng presently in Australia to lack genetic diversity as a result of inbreeding. Genetic invariability can lead to inbreeding depression, resulting in harmful mutations and reduced immunity to diseases. This was proven by an analysis of 12 microsatellites,…

The banteng was first described by German naturalist Joseph Wilhelm Eduard d'Alton in 1823. "Banteng" derived from the Javanese/Sundanese name for the animal (banṭéng). D'Alton based his description on two skulls from Java (Indonesia), a male and a female; while he described the male as a banteng, he referred to the female simply as a wild ox from Java. In 1956, Dirk Albert Hooijer of the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie (Leiden), where the skulls were first brought to from Java, noted that d'Alton used the name Bibos javanicus, or Bos (Bibos) javanicus if Bibos is considered a subgenus (as it is by some authors), to describe the male. Bos leucoprymnus was suggested as a synonym in 1830, but was pointed out to be a cross between a wild banteng and a domesticated individual; Hooijer wrote that he could not infer that this was the case from the original description, and, even if it were a cross, the name would not become invalid. Other names proposed for the banteng include Bos banteng and Bos bantinger. In a 1845 revision of d'Alton's description, the authors opined that both the specimens were wild oxen, referring to them as Bos sondaicus instead. They mistook the female for a young male, an error that continued in several publications by later authors. Fossils of banteng are known from the Middle Pleistocene of Thailand along with Stegodon, gaur, wild water buffalo and other living and extinct mammals.